Leave No Trace Camping

Travel Guidelines (On trail, off trail)

"On Trail" Guidelines

You don't have to be a part of a multi-team summer trail crew hauling shovels and rakes up mountain trails to keep a trail in good repair.  Just follow the guidelines below and trails will be maintained with a minimal amount of work.

When hiking along many of the Alaskan trail systems, the trails can be kept in good repair by educated hikers following a few basic common sense guidelines.

--STAY ON THE TRAIL--Duh!!  I know this seems to make sense to most people, but many hikers have not figured out the fact that staying on the trail keeps the impact off the trail to a minimum.  I remember hiking up Skyline Trail one summer and finding out the trail had been moved in one area because of an erosion problem.  There was a lady hiking ahead of me who decided to hike the "old trail" because of "nostalgia".  Pretty dumb lady when it came to the ecological impact in that area.  Staying on the trail means, "stay on the trail".  It does not mean stay on the trail when the going is easy or when the trail is dry or straight.  It means stay on the trail at all times.  When the trail is soft and muddy, walk through it (that's why you wear the expensive water proof boots and gaiters), when the trail has switchbacks, stay on the trail rather than short cutting it. 

--Hike in single file.  This is a problem for those hikers who enjoy carrying on lengthy discussions as they travel.  But by hiking in single file, the sides of the trail will not be trampled down and the trail will remain a thin line through the wilderness instead of a highway.

--"Police" the trail.  As you hike, pick up any trash you see along the way.  I usually carry a zip loc bag in my pocket to pick up gum and candy wrappers along the way.

"Off Trail" Guidelines

These guidelines are probably the toughest to follow.  I am one who loves to hike "off trail".  It is more remote and the chances of seeing wildlife are increased.  I also love the freedom of the openness of the high country.  But I also believe that to be given the privilege to enjoy the high country, I must take care of it the best I can. 

--When in a group, never hike in single file except over terrain that will not be damaged by impact such as rocks, snow, ice, or sand.

--Never backtrack the same way you came.  Find another way back even if it is only 10 yards away from your original course.  This prevents the area of being trampled twice in a short amount of time.

--Choose routes that offer the least resistance and the least impact by constantly looking ahead for rocky areas and open areas. Stop regularly to consult your map and scan the area for the best possible route.

--Minimize stuff hanging off your pack, which can catch on branches (an internal frame pack is great for "off trail" hiking--packs will be discussed in detail later).

--Avoid breaking off limbs to "clear a path"

--Avoid traversing steep slopes of a non-rocky surface to keep heel marks from causing erosion.

--Avoid wet marshy areas.  The vegetation tramped down will take a longer time to "bounce back" than vegetation in dryer areas.

Selecting A Campsite

Selecting a campsite is probably the most difficult and most important part of "leave no trace" backpacking.  It takes time and preparation to find the right site, which will cause the least amount of impact on the environment.  Since finding a campsite is a time consuming process, it is best to preplan your trip.  You should spend time mapping out your trip well in advance to get a good idea of where you will be spending each night.  Plan how many miles you will travel each day taking into account the terrain, time for meals, breaks, the weight of your pack, and your physical condition.  Look for more information on trip planning in Chapter ??? .  Look for established campsites on the map and plan on these sites if you are sticking to a trail system.  If you will be hiking in areas where there are no trails, look for areas that are flat (areas where the contour lines are far apart), and upon arrival, follow the guidelines below to find the best campsite.

General Campsite Guidelines.

--Plan to arrive at your camp destination in plenty of time to set up camp and eat dinner before dark.  If it takes you an hour to set up camp and eat, then plan on stopping at least an hour before dark.   It is impossible to find a site and take care of it like it needs to be taken care of in the dark.  It is also dangerous because of the lack of precautions against bear encounters.

--Be flexible on your trip.  If something has slowed you down during the day and you are not going to make your intended campsite, start looking early for another site.  Be prepared to put in a few extra miles or cut out a few miles depending on when you first come upon a good site.

--Camp on a slight slope.  If it rains, water will drain away from you.  When sleeping, sleep with your head uphill.

--Plan your campsite wisely.  Look up and make sure there are no "widow makers" above, make sure you are not camped near or on a game trail, you are at least 200 feet from any water source, your kitchen is at least 100 feet away from your tent and downwind (to keep food smells away from your tent that may attract bear), and you are not close to a trail (there is nothing more irritating than waking up to human voices hiking down the trail next to your tent).

--Think about the big picture.  Consider setting your tent up so the door faces the sunrise.  Camp on higher ground rather than lower ground in the mountains because cold air settles in the valleys in the evenings and with the additional breeze higher up, the bugs will be fewer.  Seek natural wind blocks such as boulders, or dense crops of trees.

--Try out the site before setting up camp.  Find a place that looks like it will work for your tent and lay down in various areas to see that it will be comfortable for sleeping.  If you are planning a fire, make sure there are adequate downed trees to use for firewood.

High and low-impact sites

Choose a site that has been highly impacted by human use rather than one that has had little or no use.  These high use campsites will show little continued use over the years.  Focusing on these areas leaves the rest of the wilderness untouched and able to be enjoyed by others.  If a highly impacted site is not available, choose the next best thing--a site that has had no use. This is better than finding a site, which has had little, or moderate use.  This may seem ridiculous at first, but a place that has never been used will recover easier from one night's stay than a site that has had moderate use.  A site with moderate use still has a chance to recover, but if it continues to be used, it will be turned into a high impact site with no chance of recovery.

Camping in pristine areas

Pristine areas are sites having no sign of previous camping.  In order to make as little impact as possible on a pristine site, the following guidelines should be followed:

--Choose a spot where your stay will effect the environment as little as possible. These spots include gravel bars, snow, rocky or sandy areas, and grassy or leaf-covered areas.  

--If you are camping on vegetation, make sure you know which plants can take the most abuse and recover.  A brief discussion of this is as follows:  "Grasses and sedges can withstand considerable hiker traffic due to their flexible stems and quick growth rate.  Leafy herbs are easily crushed but can grow back if left undisturbed.  Woody stemmed ground covers are fragile.  They are easily crushed and recover slowly from trampling.  If the ground is saturated, all plants are fragile and should be bypassed" (taken from "Leave No Trace" National Outdoor Leadership School)

--Stay at least 200 feet from any water source to avoid frightening animals from the water source.  When you walk to the water source to get water, follow established trails.  If there are no trails, take a different route each time to avoid stomping down vegetation.

--If you are with a group, be careful of over camping an area.  If you are staying in an area more than one night, even though inconvenient, move your site each day.  Never spend more than a couple of days in one pristine site.

--Look for animal tracks, game trails, scat and other animal signs.  You don't want to camp in an area that will adversely affect animal behavior.

--Once a site is chosen, keep the impact down by removing hiking boots with lug soles and wear soft-soled shoes.  I prefer to wear water socks.  I use them to cross streams and they work well to wear around camp.

Cooking And Cleaning Up

After many years of backpacking and camping, I have finally slowed down enough to realize that the meal during a backpacking trip is not a nuisance or an inconvenience, but is a time to sit, work with your hands, enjoy the "down" time, and make a meal that is both healthy and enjoyable to eat.  Usually I would go as long as I could without stopping to eat because I lost so much time when I did.  If backpacking is to be a time of clearing your head and opening your senses to the world around you, if it is to be a time to get away from the chaos of our normal lives, then I need to slow down and enjoy the process.  Part of that process is stopping and preparing a meal that you look forward to cooking and eating.  We will discuss menus later.  In this section, I will discuss from a low impact standpoint, the process of cooking and cleaning up. First of all, cooking should always be done on a cookstove.  I wouldn't have said that a few years back.  It was always easier to carry matches and build a fire to cook on.  But, I've changed.  I guess I've grown more impatient and want the heat immediately.  Don't get me wrong, I love fires, but I hate cooking on them.  I hate the blackened pans, the wait for the wood to turn to coals, the search for firewood, and the general mess and hassle of finding a way to balance a pot on the coals.  Therefore, I use a cookstove.  More about stoves in the section entitled "Equipment:  what you need to be safe, healthy, and comfortable".

Always plan your kitchen at least 100 feet from your camp and downwind from camp.  This keeps your tent from smelling like a Taco Bell and helps to keep the bear away from where you are sleeping.  When fixing meals, the primary consideration must always be to keep a clean kitchen.  You will never be sorry for this.

When cooking, make sure there are as few leftovers as possible.  When food is leftover, then you must determine what to do with it.  Here are some don'ts:  don't dump it into a water source and don't bury it (animals will surely find it).  This leaves only one option.  Put it in a zip loc bag and carry it out.  This is a hassle because most of the leftovers you have contain water and are therefore heavy along with the possibility of getting a hole in the bag.  Therefore, if you are not sure how much food to carry along, take a little less and bring along extra energy bars, etc. that won't cause problems with cleanup.

When cleaning up, do not clean pans or utensils in a water source.  This pollutes the water and makes for really gross water for hikers downstream from you.  Always clean your dishes at least 200 feet from the water source.  Do not use soap to wash dishes.  If they are your dishes, what's the big deal of not getting the dishes you use germfree?  Use warm water and a small sponge, sand, or grass to scrub stubborn food from the pan.  So, now what do you do with the dirty water you have after cleaning your pans?  Two options.  --Although one is not an option in my book.  Option one:  dig a small "sump" hole and dump the small amount of water into it.  Option two:  my brother-in-law witnessed someone using this technique a few years ago while having a meal with some friends at their campsite.  Upon cleaning the pan, hikers took turns drinking the leftover wash water.  That would make me puke and therefore I would have another mess to clean up.

Bathing and Washing Clothes

In my experience (or should I say my wife's), bathing is not  an option when you are on the trail more than one night. Bathing lifts the spirits, maintains good health, and is sanitary.  If bathing is not possible, washing of the face daily and the hands more often (especially when cooking) is another option. 

It is important to bathe appropriately while on the trail to maintain a balanced ecosystem.  I remember back in my younger foolish years, swimming out into a lake, soaping up, and rinsing right into the lake.  To many, this is the only way to bathe.  It is by far the simplest.  But, the advice I give frequently is this:  "If you have several choices to make, choose the one that is the most difficult, and you have probably chosen the best one."   So, what is the most difficult choice?  Here goes, get one of your collapsible buckets full of water from a water source and place it about 150' from the water.  Wade into an ice cold stream and get wet from head to toe.  Hike to the water bucket, soap up, and rinse by dumping the water over your head.  When all of the soap is rinsed, walk back to the water and wade in for a final rinse.  Dry quickly before ice forms on your body.

The reason it is so important not to soap up in the water source is this:  It doesn't matter if the soap you are using is biodegradable or  non-biodegradable, it can have a negative impact on the environment.  The chemicals in soap can be broken down into two categories:  those which give nutrients to plant-life and those which harm plant-life.  When the soap contains nutrients that help plant-life, it causes rapid growth in vegetation until it blocks out the sunlight to other plants thus preventing photosynthesis.  This basically suffocates the plant-life.  The soaps that cause harm to plants, obviously cause harm. 

Washing clothes is done basically the same way as washing the body.  The key thing is to make sure that the soap does not enter the water source.

Sanitation

OK, now the really gross section.  Don't read it too fast, but don't read it so slow that you conjure up pictures in your mind either.  Well, here we go...

Urination

Urine is basically "clean" and does not contain microorganisms.  Therefore the main problems with urination is the smell and the concentration of salts it leaves behind which can draw animals.  Therefore, urinate at least 200 feet off the trail (70 steps) and on rocks or on thick humus layers such as decaying leaves and dirt piles.  Also, avoid fragile plants as the acid can affect plant growth.  Obviously, the techniques for urinating outdoors is simpler for men that women.  This leaves men the time to use their imaginations to spell out names, go for distance, etc.  Women on the other hand, spend most of their time looking for a large rock or a downed tree.  Without going into any detail, just make sure you don't pee in your boots!!

Feces

Here's where it gets really gross.  If you are a real "leave no trace" fanatic, you will use examination gloves, pick it up, place it in zip loc bags, and pack it out with you to be deposited into a waste container or toilet upon arrival into civilization.  I'm not up to this yet, so here are my suggestions.

First of all, there are quite a number of techniques of "squatting".  The most relaxing of course, is to find a downed tree where you can relax-- Preferably one with a good view.  If a tree is not available (it never is when you need one), the squat methods must be used.  Squat type number one:  the "free squat".  This method involves dropping your pants down to your ankles (this is a must), and basically sitting on your heels and wrapping your arms around your knees.  This method works well for those who don't need much time to do their business.  Squat types number two:  the "hold on for dear life squat".  This method is more stable than the "free squat", but is hard on the arms.  Again, drop your pants to your ankles, hold on with both hands to a small tree in front of you, lean back and squat while holding onto the tree.  Caution:  don't lean back too far.  Sometimes your feet will slip out from under you causing deep fear to set in as your behind plummets to the ground. 

These are the techniques I suggest.  If you have your own you feel comfortable with, by all means use them.

Now that you have the techniques available to try, let's go on.

There are basically four principles to follow when disposing of feces:

--Keep out of water sources

--Eliminate contact with animals and insects

--Maximize decomposition

--Minimize the chances of social impacts (nothing more gross than finding someone's deposit on the bottom of your boot)

The best method of getting rid of feces that follows the guidelines above is to bury it.  There are other procedures, but I don't believe they are as adequate as burying.  The only problem with burying feces is that is decomposes more slowly.  But in most cases, this is OK because it is not causing any problems for the environment.

Procedures for disposing of feces:

"Cathole" --This is a small hole for individual, one time use.

Find a site 200 feet (70 paces) off the trail, water source, and camp that is inconspicuous and where people will unlikely walk.

To improve decomposition, choose a site with organic topsoil rather than sand.  Also, avoid gullies or places where there is water drainage. 

Dig a small hole four to eight inches deep and four to six inches in diameter.  Keep the flap of topsoil handy to make the hole as inconspicuous as possible.  Fill in the hole, put the flap of topsoil over the soil and disguise the area a well as possible.

When traveling with a group, sometimes a latrine is the best option--especially if you are staying in an area for several days.  Latrines are dug in the same way catholes are dug, just deeper.  Leave a pile of dirt nearby so that after each use, a small pile of dirt can be used to cover the feces.  Stop using the latrine before it gets too full, and again, disguise the site.

Toilet Paper

Toilet paper is a tough issue.  Here are some ideas from others:  use the left hand as "toilet paper" (seriously, they use this method in some countries!!), use a rock or pine cone, use snow, use broad leaves, or...use regular old toilet paper.  Of course, if you use toilet paper, you have a responsibility to take care of disposing it.  So, here are some ways to dispose of it properly.

--Bury it.  If you use this technique, know that toilet paper decomposes quicker if it is wet, so take your water bottle with you and wet it down well before burying it.

--Pack it out.  This is a rather gross method, but if done right, is not too bad.  Take the used toilet paper and wrap it in unused toilet paper and double Ziploc bag it.

--Burn it.  This is not a recommended method.  This method has caused forest fires.  But if done correctly and carefully, it can be done safely.  Make sure there is no breeze and the fire is completely out before leaving the site.  Also, make sure the toilet paper is completely burned.

Upon finishing your business, make sure you wash your hands.  Using any of the antibacterial lotions on the market today easily does this.

Garbage

Here are some helpful guidelines to make the garbage issue a non-issue.

--Repack your food so that you don't have wrappers and cardboard to get rid of

--Avoid leftover food by planning your meals wisely

--DON'T burn food that is leftover.  It takes a very hot fire to burn food completely.  Since most of the time it is not burned completely, animals will find and dig it up.

--Pack out all garbage that cannot be properly disposed of.  (this basically means all of it)

Campfires

When discussing fires in the camp, there are many different thoughts on the issue.  One extreme is to never have a fire and the other is to always have a fire.  I fall somewhere in the middle.  I like fires.  I always have. So sometimes I have a fire just to have a fire.   I don't know, there's just something comforting about a campfire.  Just being able to sit close to a fire watching the flames dance in the darkness offers the perfect opportunity to ponder life's questions.  I know, this is taboo among many wilderness travelers who have seen many campsites with half burned logs and unburnable trash left in the fire ring.  I believe that fires are OK and can be enjoyed as long as you know how to use one correctly.  It all comes down to making appropriate choices, using common sense, and behaving responsibly.  The most important rule of thumb I believe is a must in all situations is:  make sure the only sign you leave behind that you had a fire, is the smell of smoke on your clothes.  In other words, if you are going to have a fire, don't leave the remains of it visible to other hikers. 

Let me start off with the "don'ts" of fire building. 

--Don't build a fire directly on the ground.  The heat will kill vegetation and make the soil sterile by killing microorganisms responsible for breaking down organic matter thus not allowing plant life to regrow in the spot of the fire for a long time.

--Don't dig a fire pit.  This will also "sterilize" the soil and leave a scar for years to come.

--Don't build a fire ring out of rocks.  This makes for a neat and orderly campsite, but is really doesn't serve any purpose.  It does not keep the fire within the fire area (that's your job and you should never leave the fire unattended).  All it does is make the rocks permanently black and ruin the pristine area for other's who may wonder through your camp area in the future.

There are many ways to build a "leave no trace" fire, but only a few are really practical for a hiker in Alaska. 

To Build A Fire

First, look a location for your fire.  It should be made up of inorganic soil (rocky or sandy soil).  When you are finished with the fire and the ashes are cool, scatter or bury them. 

If there is no inorganic soil nearby, you have a couple of other choices.  These choices are:  the platform fire and the mound fire.

To build a platform fire, find a large flat rock and pile a mound of mineral soil several inches thick on top.  Flatten the soil and build your fire.  When the fire is out and cool, scatter the ashes and clean off the rock.

To build a mound fire, us a small ground sheet (3' x 3') and lay it on the soil where you want to build the fire.  Pile several inches of mineral soil on the ground sheet and build your fire on this soil.  This keeps the fire and the heat from reaching the inorganic soil below.  When the fire is out and cool, return the soil from where it was taken and spread the ashes. 

These ideas for preparing the area for a fire seem pretty ridiculous at first, but think about it.  When you are hiking in the backcountry, do you want to stumble upon someone else's camping remains?  No, when we are out in the wilderness, we want to enjoy the sights knowing there are no signs of human life around.

Once you have an area prepared for your fire, the actual fire building begins.  Most hikers have there own "sure-fire" methods to building a fire.  So, here are mine.

The most important part of building the fire has nothing to do with the type of wood used, etc.  The most important aspect of good fire building is patience.  You must be patient in the initial preparation so that when you touch your pile of sticks and other flammable materials, a fire flares up right away.  I guess it goes back to the pride thing of using as few matches as necessary to build the fire.  But, it is always a personal accomplishment to start the fire with the first match lit.  So, here's how you patiently prepare your fire for the flame. 

First of all, find tinder that will start immediately when touched with a match. 

Here are several suggestions:

--Carry an old bird nest in a Ziploc bag

--Carry an old prescription bottle with Vaseline mixed with cotton

--Search under spruce trees for "pencil lead" sized twigs (these are always dry when the              weather is rainy and wet)

--Peel bark from a dead birch tree, or as a last resort, and in an emergency situation only,             peel small pieces of birch bark from a standing tree making sure the pieces taken do not            go all the way around the tree.

Fire likes disorganization.  So, haphazardly lay your tinder in an uncompressed pile. Make sure you have enough tinder to keep the fire burning until the larger twigs catch fire.  Next, start building a small teepee with twigs no larger than drinking straws making sure you leave a space to reach in to the tinder with the match.  The teepee should be short enough that the flames from the tinder can easily reach it.  Finally, build another teepee over the first one with sticks just slightly larger than the ones in the initial teepee.  Again, making sure you can get the lit match to the tinder. 

The above fire building process is necessary in order to build up enough heat to start larger pieces of wood on fire, which will become the campfire you will enjoy later.  So, make sure you build it correctly.  There is nothing more frustrating than having to tear everything apart and start over because you were not patient enough to do it right the first time.  

Strike the match, knowing exactly where you will place it, and light the tinder.  Wait.  Wait.  Make sure the tinder and the two teepees you built are fully engulfed in flame and "crackling" for a while before you start adding larger pieces of wood.  The fire is still fragile at this stage, so lay the wood on gently and deliberately.  As the diameter of the wood you are adding to the fire increase in size, remember to never use wood larger in diameter than your wrist.  This size wood burns more efficiently and more completely than larger diameter wood.

When in search of tinder at the beginning stages of your fire building, remember to gather all of the wood you will need for your fire.  This keeps you close to the fire once it starts burning rather than in the woods looking for wood leaving the fire unattended.  When searching for wood, first of all look for dead trees.  In Alaska, finding downed trees is rarely a problem.  If it is raining and you are in an emergency situation, break off small dead branches at the base of spruce trees.  These are almost always dry and will help you out of a dangerous situation.

When you are through with the fire, make sure it is completely out.  Flood the area with water until you can lay your hand in the ashes and feel no heat.  But don't put your hand in.  The ashes mixed with water make caustic lye that can cause burns.  Also, there may be some hidden embers that could cause burns.  Then spread the ashes.

Never go to bed with a fire going.  In the morning you will likely have unburned wood to dispose of.  Also, never put the fire out until all of the wood is burned.  Before leaving the campsite, make sure all unused wood is scattered.

Leaving Behind What You Find

People come into the wilderness to discover the same things you are looking at discovering.  Allow others the sense of discovery by leaving rocks, plants, archaeological finds, antlers, etc as you find them.

Never put nails in trees or tear off branches for fires or sleeping pads. 

Never disturb wildlife 

When animals sense humans, there is instant fear.  Most animals react with alarm causing stress as well as use of needed energy trying to put distance between the human and itself.  In fact, some biologists using heart monitors have said that some wildlife expend a week's worth of energy in a single human encounter.  View wildlife from a distance using binoculars.  If you can keep the animal from knowing you are around, that much better.  A single encounter with an animal may not affect the animal to a large degree, but multiple encounters can cause the animal health problems and may even frighten the animal away from the area where there is good food sources and shelter.